The Best Protein Sources for Dogs: How to Choose and Why
- Claire Lucie Sonck
- Aug 30
- 16 min read
Updated: Sep 3
Introduction: Understanding Protein Sources in Canine Nutrition
Protein is one of the most critical nutrients in a dog’s diet. It provides amino acids, which are the fundamental building blocks for muscle, enzymes, hormones, neurotransmitters, and immune cells. Dogs, like humans, do not have a requirement for specific foods such as meat or plants — they have a requirement for nutrients, including essential amino acids (arginine, lysine, methionine, tryptophan, etc.), which must be supplied through the diet.
Different protein sources, however, can vary significantly in their amino acid composition, digestibility, bioavailability, and associated health impacts. These differences are not only nutritional but also extend to areas such as allergenicity, inflammatory potential, and microbial safety.
Animal-derived proteins (e.g., chicken, beef, dairy, eggs, fish) are traditionally considered high-quality because they often contain all essential amino acids in proportions close to canine requirements. However, they can also be associated with certain health considerations. Studies have identified that some animal proteins are among the most common dietary allergens in dogs (Olivry et al., 2015). Animal proteins can also contain arachidonic acid, a polyunsaturated omega-6 fatty acid that serves as a precursor to inflammatory eicosanoids, and they may carry microbial contaminants such as Salmonella or E. coli if fed raw.
Plant-derived proteins (e.g., soy, lentils, chickpeas, peas, quinoa, hemp) are increasingly being studied for canine diets. While some plant proteins may be limited in specific essential amino acids, they can be combined to achieve balance. Many plant proteins also provide additional benefits in the form of dietary fiber and phytonutrients (polyphenols, flavonoids, saponins), which may influence gut health, immune modulation, and oxidative stress. Studies show that properly cooked legumes and grains can achieve digestibility scores of 80–90% or higher, meeting canine nutritional requirements.
Processing and safety are also important. High-temperature processing (such as extrusion used in kibble production) can reduce protein quality through Maillard reactions and advanced glycation end-products (AGEs), which have been linked to inflammation in both animals and humans. Conversely, raw animal proteins may increase the risk of zoonotic bacterial transmission, including antimicrobial-resistant strains, as documented in multiple studies of raw-fed dogs and their owners.
Taken together, the choice of protein source in canine nutrition is not only about fulfilling amino acid requirements but also about considering digestibility, allergenicity, inflammation, safety, and broader health outcomes.
1. Protein Quality: Beyond “Meat vs. Plants”
When considering protein nutrition in dogs, it is important to recognize that the requirement is for amino acids, not for specific food sources such as “meat” or “plants.” The canine body relies on 10 essential amino acids that must be supplied through the diet: arginine, histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine (and cysteine), phenylalanine (and tyrosine), threonine, tryptophan, and valine. The adequacy of a protein source is therefore judged by its ability to supply these amino acids in appropriate proportions, its digestibility, and its bioavailability once ingested.
Measuring Protein Quality
Several methods are used to evaluate the quality of proteins in human and animal nutrition:
Biological Value (BV): Reflects how efficiently the absorbed protein is utilized for protein synthesis in the body.
Net Protein Utilization (NPU): The ratio of nitrogen retained to nitrogen intake, integrating digestibility and biological value.
Protein Efficiency Ratio (PER): Growth-based method (grams of body weight gain per gram of protein consumed), often used in rodents.
Protein Digestibility-Corrected Amino Acid Score (PDCAAS): Adjusts amino acid content for true fecal digestibility.
Digestible Indispensable Amino Acid Score (DIAAS): Newer method, considers ileal digestibility of individual amino acids; increasingly recognized as more accurate.
In canine nutrition research, true fecal and ileal digestibility studies are most commonly used, supplemented by PDCAAS and DIAAS values derived from human or livestock data when direct canine data are lacking.
Animal Protein Sources
Animal-derived proteins such as chicken, beef, fish, eggs, and dairy are often described as “high quality” because they tend to contain all essential amino acids in proportions similar to canine requirements. For example, egg protein has a PDCAAS of 1.0, reflecting an ideal amino acid profile and near-complete digestibility. Meat proteins also generally score highly, though values vary depending on species, cut, processing method, and preparation.
However, protein quality is not uniform across animal sources:
Rendered meat meals (kibble production): High-heat rendering and extrusion can reduce amino acid availability through Maillard reactions and cross-linking, especially for lysine. Even when crude protein percentages appear adequate, bioavailability may be lower. The same processing also generates advanced glycation end-products (AGEs), which are linked in human and animal studies to oxidative stress, systemic inflammation, and complications in chronic conditions such as kidney disease, diabetes, and cardiovascular disorders.
Raw meats: Provide intact amino acids without heat damage, but digestibility can be influenced by fat content and connective tissue. Raw feeding also carries microbial risks, with studies showing raw-fed dogs frequently shedding Salmonella, E. coli, Clostridium, and antimicrobial-resistant bacteria in feces and saliva. These pathogens may not always affect the dog directly but pose risks to household members and can alter the gut microbiome in ways that influence immune function and inflammatory balance.
Home-cooked meats: Cooking meat at moderate household temperatures reduces microbial risk but introduces other factors. Heat-stable compounds such as heterocyclic amines (HCAs) and AGEs can form during pan-frying, grilling, or roasting, especially at high temperatures. These compounds have been associated with oxidative stress and inflammation in mammalian studies. Additionally, animal proteins are a natural source of arachidonic acid, an omega-6 fatty acid that serves as a precursor for pro-inflammatory eicosanoids (e.g., prostaglandin E2, leukotriene B4). While these molecules are essential in small amounts, chronic excess can promote inflammatory processes relevant to conditions such as arthritis, dermatitis, or kidney disease.
Links to allergy and immune dysfunction: Large-scale reviews (Olivry et al., 2015) consistently show that beef, dairy, and chicken are the top three dietary allergens in dogs worldwide. Repeated exposure in commercial formulas or home diets may increase the risk of sensitization. When combined with the pro-inflammatory profile of arachidonic acid and processing-derived compounds, animal proteins may contribute not only to allergic disease but also to systemic inflammation that underpins many chronic canine health conditions.
Plant Protein Sources
Plant proteins have historically been labeled as “incomplete,” but this is an oversimplification that is not supported by current science. The quality of plant proteins depends on amino acid composition, digestibility, and processing — just as it does for animal proteins. When properly selected and prepared, plant proteins can meet or exceed canine requirements for essential amino acids and provide additional health-promoting compounds not found in animal proteins.
Amino Acid Adequacy and Complementarity
Soy protein is one of the most extensively studied plant proteins in canine nutrition. It has a PDCAAS of ~0.9–1.0, very close to egg protein, and is particularly high in lysine. Clinical studies in dogs show soy protein diets maintain nitrogen balance, muscle mass, and serum amino acid concentrations.
Legumes (lentils, chickpeas, peas, beans) are rich in lysine, threonine, and isoleucine. They are relatively lower in methionine and cysteine, but when paired with grains such as quinoa or oats, they form a complete amino acid profile.
Cereal grains (oats, quinoa, amaranth, rice) complement legumes by providing methionine and cysteine. Quinoa and amaranth stand out because they are naturally “complete” proteins, providing all essential amino acids in near-ideal proportions.
Hemp seeds also provide a complete amino acid spectrum, with a PDCAAS of ~0.9, and are highly digestible thanks to their albumin and edestin protein fractions.
Digestibility and Bioavailability
Studies in dogs (Swanson et al., 2013; Oba et al., 2020) have shown that properly cooked legumes and grains achieve true digestibility values of 80–90% or higher, well within the range required for adequate nutrition.
Processing such as soaking, sprouting, and boiling reduces anti-nutritional factors (lectins, trypsin inhibitors, phytates), further improving digestibility and mineral bioavailability.
Heat-treated or isolated plant proteins (e.g., soy protein isolate, pea protein concentrate) can reach digestibility similar to meat or egg.
Health Benefits Unique to Plant Proteins
Anti-inflammatory properties: Unlike meat, plant proteins lack arachidonic acid (the precursor of inflammatory eicosanoids). They are accompanied by phytonutrients — such as polyphenols, flavonoids, and saponins — that downregulate pro-inflammatory signaling (e.g., NF-κB, COX-2).
Gut microbiome support: Plant proteins come with fermentable fibers that feed beneficial bacteria. These microbes produce short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) such as butyrate, which strengthen gut barrier integrity, regulate immune tolerance, and reduce systemic endotoxemia.
Lower contamination risk: Plant proteins are free from zoonotic pathogens such as Salmonella and E. coli that are common in raw meats, and they are not associated with antibiotic-resistant bacteria carriage.
Metabolic support: Studies in humans and animal models link plant proteins (soy, flax, hemp) with improved lipid metabolism, reduced oxidative stress, and renal protection — benefits that are increasingly being investigated in dogs as well.
Summary
Modern research confirms that plant proteins are not only adequate but can be considered high-quality proteins for dogs when diets are properly formulated. By combining complementary sources (e.g., legumes + grains), it is straightforward to achieve complete amino acid profiles with excellent digestibility. Furthermore, plant proteins carry unique health benefits through their anti-inflammatory, microbiome-supporting, and contamination-free profile.
2. Why Animal Proteins May Increase Health Risks
Inflammation and Chronic Disease Links
Arachidonic acid (AA): Animal proteins, particularly from red meat, poultry, eggs, and dairy, are significant sources of arachidonic acid. AA is an omega-6 fatty acid incorporated into cell membranes and released during inflammation. It serves as a precursor for pro-inflammatory eicosanoids (e.g., prostaglandin E2, leukotriene B4, thromboxane A2). Elevated eicosanoid activity has been implicated in canine arthritis, dermatitis, inflammatory bowel disease, and kidney disease.
Endotoxins: Animal products, even after cooking, may contain lipopolysaccharides (LPS) from bacterial cell walls. In dogs, circulating endotoxins contribute to metabolic endotoxemia, which can increase systemic inflammation, oxidative stress, and insulin resistance.
Advanced glycation end-products (AGEs): High-temperature processing (extrusion, rendering, pan-frying) promotes glycation of amino acids and sugars, creating AGEs. These compounds bind to RAGE receptors (Receptor for Advanced Glycation End-products), activating NF-κB and generating reactive oxygen species. Chronic AGE exposure has been linked to renal strain, vascular stiffness, diabetes complications, and accelerated aging in both human and animal studies.
Allergenicity and Immune Sensitization
Large-scale reviews (Olivry et al., 2015; Verlinden et al., 2006) confirm that beef, dairy, and chicken are the top three food allergens in dogs worldwide. These ingredients account for the majority of reported adverse food reactions.
Mechanism: Food allergies arise when dietary proteins cross an impaired gut barrier and are recognized as antigens. Repeated exposure leads to IgE production and mast cell sensitization, causing reactions such as pruritus, otitis externa, or chronic diarrhea.
Cross-reactivity: Structural similarities between animal proteins may cause the immune system to misidentify one as another, worsening the risk of multi-protein allergies.
Clinical significance: Allergic dogs often show secondary infections (yeast, bacterial) due to chronic skin inflammation, which adds to long-term morbidity.
Microbial Contamination and Food Safety
Raw animal proteins frequently harbor pathogenic bacteria including Salmonella spp., Escherichia coli, Clostridium perfringens, Listeria monocytogenes, and Campylobacter spp. Studies show that 20–60% of raw-fed dogs shed these pathogens in feces, posing serious risks to owners and other pets.
Antibiotic resistance: Increasing evidence shows that raw-fed dogs may shed antimicrobial-resistant bacteria, including ESBL-producing E. coli, raising public health concerns.
Cooked meats: While cooking reduces microbial load, heat-stable toxins remain. Endotoxins (LPS) are not destroyed by cooking, and mutagenic compounds such as heterocyclic amines (HCAs) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) form when meat is pan-fried, grilled, or roasted at high temperatures. Both HCAs and PAHs are classified as probable carcinogens in humans and may contribute to oxidative stress and mutagenesis in dogs.
3. Why Plant Proteins Offer Protective Benefits
Anti-inflammatory Properties
Plant proteins are free from arachidonic acid, eliminating the direct substrate for pro-inflammatory eicosanoids.
They are naturally accompanied by phytonutrients (e.g., isoflavones in soy, flavonoids in legumes, quercetin in quinoa, lignans in flax/hemp). These compounds are documented to downregulate NF-κB signaling, inhibit COX-2 enzymes, and reduce oxidative stress, all of which mitigate chronic inflammation.
Dietary fiber present in plant proteins leads to fermentation in the colon, producing short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) like butyrate, which are anti-inflammatory and promote regulatory T-cell activity.
Amino Acid Adequacy and Strength
Properly selected plant proteins have high PDCAAS/DIAAS scores. Soy protein isolate, lentils, and quinoa all achieve digestibility and amino acid balance adequate for canine needs.
Legume + grain combinations (e.g., lentils + quinoa, chickpeas + oats) ensure coverage of lysine and methionine, the two most limiting amino acids in plant proteins.
Hemp seeds and quinoa provide a complete amino acid profile without the need for pairing.
Studies in dogs (Oba et al., 2020; Swanson et al., 2013) demonstrate that plant-based formulations sustain nitrogen balance, serum amino acid concentrations, and body condition scores equivalent to meat-based diets.
Lower Allergy Risk and Immune Benefits
Plant proteins are rarely implicated in canine food allergies compared to animal proteins. Reports of legumes or grains as allergens are far less frequent and often context-specific (e.g., contaminated commercial diets).
Fiber and prebiotic compounds in plant proteins support a resilient gut microbiome, enhancing gut barrier integrity and lowering antigen penetration — a key factor in preventing allergic sensitization.
SCFA production (butyrate, acetate, propionate) improves mucosal immunity and promotes oral tolerance to dietary proteins.
Cleaner, Safer, and Sustainable
Plant proteins eliminate the risks of zoonotic pathogens (Salmonella, Campylobacter), endotoxins, and carcinogenic compounds formed during meat cooking.
They are not vectors for antibiotic-resistant bacteria, an increasing concern with raw feeding.
From a sustainability perspective, plant proteins require significantly fewer resources (land, water, greenhouse gas emissions) than animal proteins, aligning with both public health and ecological goals.
Summary:
Animal proteins: High amino acid quality, but associated with allergenicity, pro-inflammatory compounds, microbial contamination, and carcinogen formation during cooking.
Plant proteins: Equally capable of meeting amino acid needs, while offering additional anti-inflammatory, microbiome-supportive, and safety advantages.
4. Best Plant Protein Sources for Dogs
1. Lentils (Lens culinaris)
Digestibility: When properly soaked and boiled, lentils reach digestibility scores of ~82–85%. Heat treatment deactivates trypsin inhibitors and lectins, improving amino acid availability.
Amino Acid Profile: Rich in lysine, isoleucine, and leucine; relatively lower in methionine, making them ideal to pair with grains such as quinoa or oats.
Phytonutrients: Contain procyanidins, catechins, and phenolic acids that act as antioxidants.
Health Benefits: Lentils provide resistant starch and soluble fibers that feed butyrate-producing bacteria like Faecalibacterium prausnitzii and Bifidobacterium spp., which are associated with improved gut barrier function, reduced systemic inflammation, and stronger immune tolerance.
2. Chickpeas (Cicer arietinum)
Digestibility: True digestibility ~78–84% when cooked. Soaking and boiling reduce raffinose-family oligosaccharides, minimizing gas production and improving tolerance.
Amino Acid Profile: High in lysine and arginine; limited in methionine.
Phytonutrients: Contain saponins (glycosides with cholesterol-lowering and immune-modulating effects) and isoflavones.
Health Benefits: Chickpeas are rich in resistant starch, which undergoes colonic fermentation to produce SCFAs (butyrate, acetate). Butyrate strengthens epithelial tight junctions, reduces intestinal permeability (“leaky gut”), and promotes regulatory T-cell development, lowering risk of food allergies and systemic inflammation.
3. Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa)
Digestibility: PDCAAS values range 0.87–0.92, making it one of the highest-quality plant proteins. Rinsing before cooking removes saponins that can otherwise irritate the gut.
Amino Acid Profile: Naturally “complete,” providing all essential amino acids, including methionine, lysine, and tryptophan.
Phytonutrients: Rich in quercetin and kaempferol, flavonoids with anti-inflammatory, mast-cell-stabilizing, and antioxidant effects.
Health Benefits: Quinoa peptides have been shown to inhibit angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE), which may support cardiovascular health and blood pressure regulation in mammals. Quercetin also reduces histamine release and supports skin barrier integrity.
4. Amaranth (Amaranthus caudatus)
Digestibility: Cooked amaranth achieves ~85–87% digestibility. Pseudocereal starch gelatinization during cooking enhances protein and mineral availability.
Amino Acid Profile: High in lysine and tryptophan; complements legumes that may lack these amino acids.
Phytonutrients: Contains squalene, a triterpene with skin-barrier-enhancing and antioxidant properties, and rutin, a flavonoid that supports vascular integrity.
Health Benefits: The magnesium in amaranth supports hundreds of enzymatic reactions, including those regulating inflammation and mast cell stability. Diets higher in magnesium are linked with improved insulin sensitivity and reduced systemic inflammation.
5. Hemp Seeds (Cannabis sativa)
Digestibility: Hemp protein (albumin + edestin fractions) has a PDCAAS ~0.90 and is highly bioavailable.
Amino Acid Profile: Complete protein with balanced proportions of essential amino acids.
Phytonutrients: Rich in gamma-linolenic acid (GLA) and alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), both of which modulate inflammatory eicosanoid production.
Health Benefits: GLA can be metabolized to dihomo-gamma-linolenic acid (DGLA), a precursor to anti-inflammatory prostaglandins (PGE1). Clinical data in dogs and humans suggest GLA improves skin hydration, reduces dermatitis, and lowers scratching in allergic conditions. Hemp also provides edestin, a globular protein highly digestible and well tolerated by most dogs.
6. Pumpkin Seeds (Cucurbita pepo)
Digestibility: True digestibility ~80–85%. Light roasting enhances protein bioavailability without major nutrient loss.
Amino Acid Profile: Particularly high in arginine and glutamate; good source of tryptophan.
Phytonutrients: Contain cucurbitacins (triterpenes with anti-parasitic properties) and phytosterols.
Health Benefits: Rich in zinc, a critical cofactor for keratinocyte proliferation, wound healing, and immune competence. Zinc deficiency in dogs is associated with poor skin quality and recurrent infections. Arginine supports nitric oxide synthesis, improving vascular function and nutrient delivery to tissues, including skin and joints.
7. Oats (Avena sativa)
Digestibility: Cooked oats reach ~80–83% digestibility, with improved availability of methionine and cysteine.
Amino Acid Profile: Higher in methionine compared to legumes, making them an excellent complementary protein source.
Phytonutrients: Contain beta-glucans (immune-modulating soluble fibers) and avenanthramides (phenolic alkaloids with anti-inflammatory properties).
Health Benefits: Beta-glucans bind to receptors such as dectin-1 and complement receptor 3 on immune cells, reducing inappropriate inflammation and improving immune balance. Avenanthramides reduce histamine release and soothe skin inflammation, making oats a valuable protein and functional food for allergic dogs.
Each plant protein offers not only amino acids but also bioactive compounds that influence inflammation, immunity, skin health, and gut microbiome composition. Together, these properties make plant proteins both nutritionally adequate and functionally beneficial in ways that animal proteins generally are not.
Key Takeaway
Choosing the best protein sources for dogs is not about favoring one single ingredient — it’s about understanding how amino acid adequacy, digestibility, inflammation, and safety work together to influence long-term health.
Proteins differ not only in their amino acid profiles but also in their effects on the immune system, gut microbiome, inflammatory pathways, and overall disease risk. Animal and plant proteins both provide essential amino acids, yet their broader health impacts diverge in meaningful ways.
The Science of a Whole-Dog Approach to Protein
Amino acid balance, not origin: Dogs require essential amino acids, not “meat” or “plants.” Both animal and plant proteins can meet requirements when diets are properly formulated.
Digestibility matters: True digestibility for many plant proteins, when cooked correctly, reaches 80–90% — well within the range of canine nutritional adequacy. Processing method often matters more than origin.
Inflammation links: Animal proteins contribute arachidonic acid, endotoxins, and heat-derived AGEs, all of which can increase pro-inflammatory signaling. Plant proteins, by contrast, provide anti-inflammatory phytonutrients and fiber that support immune regulation.
Allergenicity: Clinical studies confirm beef, dairy, and chicken are the top three dietary allergens in dogs, while plant proteins are less frequently implicated.
Safety considerations: Raw and undercooked meats may harbor pathogenic bacteria and antimicrobial-resistant strains. Properly prepared plant proteins avoid these risks and contribute to microbiome health.
Practical Implications
Rotate protein sources – Diversifying proteins reduces sensitization risk, supports microbiome diversity, and ensures coverage of limiting amino acids.
Prioritise digestibility – Soak and thoroughly cook legumes; choose pseudocereals like quinoa or amaranth for highly available proteins.
Support gut–immune balance – Include fiber-rich plant proteins that promote SCFA production and strengthen gut barrier integrity.
Minimise inflammatory burden – Limit ultra-processed foods and avoid excessive reliance on meats high in arachidonic acid.
Consider safety and sustainability – Evaluate not just amino acids but also contamination risks and environmental footprint.
By approaching protein selection as part of a whole-dog strategy, you create synergy between nutrition, immune health, and long-term disease prevention. Over time, these thoughtful choices can support stronger immunity, reduced inflammation, and better overall resilience.
With warmth and care,
Claire Lucie Sonck
CMA-Registered Canine Nutritionist
Scientific Evidence to go Further
Common canine food allergens (beef, dairy, chicken)
Mueller RS, Olivry T, Prélaud P. 2016. “Common food allergen sources in dogs and cats.” BMC Veterinary Research 12:9. BioMed Central
Olivry T, Mueller RS. 2016. “Prevalence of cutaneous adverse food reactions in dogs and cats.” BMC Veterinary Research 13:51. BioMed Central
Pet-food mislabeling / undeclared proteins
Olivry T, Mueller RS. 2018. “Discrepancies between ingredients and labeling in commercial pet foods.” BMC Veterinary Research 14:24. BioMed CentralSpringerLink
Plant-based nutrition adequacy & digestibility in dogs
Roberts J et al. 2023. “Apparent total tract macronutrient digestibility… of human-grade vegan dog foods.” Journal of Animal Science 101(2). PubMed
Liversidge K et al. 2023. “Nutrient intake of dogs fed a commercial plant-based diet.” Frontiers in Animal Science. NCBI
Knight A, Huang E. 2022. “Vegan versus meat-based dog diets: guardian-reported health outcomes.” PLOS ONE 17(4):e0265662. PMC
Dodd SA et al. 2022. “Owner perception of health of North American dogs fed meat- or plant-based diets.” The Veterinary Journal 286:105849. PMC
Reilly LM et al. 2021. “Legumes and yeast as main protein sources in extruded canine diets.” Frontiers in Veterinary Science 8:752821. PubMed
Protein quality methodology (PDCAAS / DIAAS)
Rutherfurd SM et al. 2015. “PDCAAS and DIAAS.” British Journal of Nutrition 113(7):1080–1087. PubMed
Mathai JK, Liu Y, Stein HH. 2017. “DIAAS vs PDCAAS for dairy and plant proteins.” British Journal of Nutrition 117(4):490–499. Cambridge University Press & Assessment
Moughan PJ, Lim WXJ. 2024. “DIAAS: 10 years on.” Frontiers in Nutrition 11:1389719. Frontiers
Han F et al. 2019. “DIAAS of nine cooked cereal grains.” British Journal of Nutrition 121(1):30–41. Cambridge University Press & Assessment
Conzuelo ZR et al. 2022. “Protein quality of vegan menus with PDCAAS & DIAAS.” Nutrients 14(6):1266. PMC
Hemp seed protein (as an example plant protein)
Wang Q et al. 2019. “Processing, nutrition, and functionality of hempseed protein: a review.” Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety 18(4):936–952. Wiley Online Library+1
Nosworthy MG et al. 2023. “In vivo and in vitro protein quality of hemp products.” Journal of Food Science 88(12):5633–5646. PMC
Cerino P et al. 2021. “Hemp as food and nutritional supplement.” Cannabis and Cannabinoid Research 6(1):9–20. PMC
Sun X et al. 2021. “Seed storage proteins of hemp (11S edestin).” Frontiers in Nutrition 8:678421. Frontiers
Quinoa protein bioactive peptides (illustrative plant-protein bioactivity)
Guo H et al. 2021. “Quinoa protein lowers blood pressure in SHRs; microbiota links.” Nutrients 13(7):2446. MDPI
Guo H et al. 2020. “DPP-IV and ACE-inhibitory quinoa peptides.” Food & Function 11(3):2113–2121. PMC
Xi X et al. 2024. “Quinoa: bioactive compounds & health effects.” Frontiers in Nutrition 11:1292405. PMC
β-glucans / oats & immune modulation (diet–immune links)
Ferreira LG et al. 2018. “Oat β-glucan as a dietary supplement for dogs.” PLOS ONE 13(7):e0201133. PMC
Stuyven E et al. 2010. “Oral β-1,3/1,6-glucan and humoral responses in dogs.” Clinical and Vaccine Immunology 17(12):1794–1799. ASM Journals
Han B et al. 2020. “Structure–function of β-glucans in immunology.” Frontiers in Immunology 11:658. Frontiers
Omega-3s & inflammatory mediators in dogs
Microbiome, fiber & immune/metabolic effects (canine)
Pilla R, Suchodolski JS. 2021. “Gut microbiome of dogs and cats & diet influence.” Veterinary Clinics of North America: Small Animal Practice 51(2):221–233. vetsmall.theclinics.com
Wernimont SM et al. 2020. “Nutrition and the gastrointestinal microbiome of pets.” Frontiers in Microbiology 11:604012. PMC
Bosch G et al. 2009. “Fiber fermentability & satiety-related metabolites in dogs.” British Journal of Nutrition 102(2):318–325. PubMed
Raw meat risks: pathogens & antimicrobial resistance
van Bree FPJ et al. 2018. “Zoonotic bacteria & parasites in raw meat-based diets.” Veterinary Record 182:50. Wiley Online Library
Davies RH et al. 2019. “Prolonged shedding of antimicrobial-resistant E. coli in dogs fed raw meat.” Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy 74(11):3111–3118. ScienceDirect
Nüesch-Inderbinen M et al. 2019. “Raw pet food: ESBL/AmpC E. coli contamination.” Royal Society Open Science 6:190195. Petaluma
Advanced glycation end-products (AGEs) & pet food processing
van Rooijen C et al. 2013. “Maillard reaction products in pet foods: implications.” Nutrition Research Reviews 26(1):130–148. PMC
Oba PM et al. 2022. “Maillard reaction products in pet food: review.” Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety 21(5):4630–4655. BioMed Central
Wu S et al. 2024. “Ultra-processed vs whole foods: oxidative stress & sRAGE in dogs.” Nutrients 16(7):1045. Bonza
High-temperature cooked meats: HCAs/PAHs (chemical by-products)
Knize MG, Felton JS. 2005. “Formation & human risk of carcinogenic HCAs in meat.” Nutrition Reviews 63(5):158–165. PubMed
Sugimura T et al. 2005. “HCAs: mutagens/carcinogens produced during cooking.” Cancer Science 96(5):315–320. PMC
IARC. 2018. Red Meat and Processed Meat (Monographs Vol. 114). publications.iarc.who.int+1NCBI
Endotoxin (LPS) heat-stability & persistence (context for contamination risk)
Magalhães PO et al. 2007. “LPS is a heat-stable contaminant; biologic effects.” Biotechnology Journal (reviewed via PMC). PMC
Rietschel ET et al. 1994–2002. “LPS structure & biology.” Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev. (overview via PMC). PMC
Liu S et al. 2010. “Hydrothermal inactivation kinetics of endotoxins.” Biotechnology and Bioengineering 106(3):460–469. PMC
Kawahara K et al. 2009. “Soft hydrothermal processing inactivates endotoxins.” Applied and Environmental Microbiology 75(15):4762–4769. PMC
StatPearls. 2023. “Biochemistry, Lipopolysaccharide (LPS).” NCBI Bookshelf. NCBI
Misc. methodology / diagnostics (allergy)
Mueller RS, Olivry T. 2017. “In vivo/in vitro tests for adverse food reactions (limitations).” BMC Veterinary Research 13:275. SpringerLink
Olivry T, Mueller RS. 2020. “Time to flare after dietary challenge in food-allergic dogs.” BMC Veterinary Research 16:158. BioMed Central
About the Author: Claire Lucie Sonck is an UK-trained, CMA-registered canine nutritionist specializing in fresh, whole, anti-inflammatory plant-based diets for dogs. With experience helping dogs from 65+ countries, Claire provides science-backed nutrition guidance to improve canine health, longevity, and well-being. She is a global speaker, educator, and advocate for ethical and sustainable pet nutrition. Claire’s work has been featured in international conferences, research projects, and educational platforms, helping dog parents make informed, science-driven decisions about their dogs’ diets.
Learn more: www.clairethedognutritionist.com
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Get in touch with Claire Lucie: info@clairethedognutritionist.com
Disclaimer: This article is for informational and educational purposes only. It is not intended to replace professional veterinary advice, diagnosis, or treatment. Always consult with a qualified veterinarian or canine nutritionist before making changes to your dog’s diet, health routine, or medical care. The author is a certified canine nutritionist and does not claim to diagnose or treat medical conditions.
© 2025 Claire Lucie | All rights reserved.
No part of this article may be reproduced or distributed without written permission from the author.
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